The Religion of Paul the Apostle by John Ashton Essay Example for Free

The Religion of Paul the Apostle by John Ashton Essay This book is the outcome of the author’s conviction that an important way of understanding Saint Paul has been neglected. He mentions the idea expressed in 1888 by Hermann Gunkel, that Paul’s life experiences are the key to understanding his teaching about the spirit. On page 198 Ashton quotes Heinrich Weinel as saying :-   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Whenever the early church speaks of spirit and spirits it is always a matter of a perception based on frequent occurrences of real experiences. We see therefore that this book is much more an attempt to explain Paul’s experiences than yet another examination of his theology. The blurb on the back of this unusual book says in the author’s own words :- Paul did, I think, found a religion, and this book is largely concerned   with the question of how he came to do so. Besides being a study of comparative religion it is also proffered as a contribution towards the   history of early Christianity. Some would argue with that definition – it seems to remove Christ from the picture and also the work of other evangelists. Paul has such a prominent position in the New Testament not necessarily because he was more important than other evangelists, but because, in Luke, he had such an excellent biographer. A look at the Bible references in the back of the book reveals how many times Paul’s life or words are referenced in comparison to the relatively few references taken from the gospels and the Old Testament. The book is very concerned with definitions, in particular with the difference between   religion – defined as experience, and theology – defined as the thinking that comes as a result of that experience. This is a scholarly work as can be seen immediately from the background of the author and the number of works by other scholars that he has consulted .John Ashton was formerly a lecturer in New Testament Studies at Oxford University. He had previously taught at the universities of London, St Andrews and Edinburgh. At the time of writing this book ( 2000) he was Emeritus Fellow of Wolfson College, also in Oxford. He is best known for writing about John’s gospel – ‘Understanding the Fourth Gospel’, ‘Approaches to the Fourth Gospel’ etc ‘The religion of Saint Paul the Apostle’ was originally a series of 8 lectures which the author had been asked to give at Oxford University in 1998. These were the annual ‘Wilde Lectures in Natural and Comparative Religion’, founded under a trust deed in 1908. The nature of the lectures has changed over the years   as Ashton explains. Once upon a time they sought to distinguish the higher religions from the lower, but this second part of the description was dropped in 1969, probably in an attempt not to appear racist or judgmental. He uses material both from Paul himself, but also from contemporaries of his from both Jewish and Hellenistic, i.e. pagan, backgrounds. Ashton describes how from the 1880’s onwards there had been attempts to study the New Testament as objectively as one might study any other historical sources, but also goes on to say that the people were concerned were actually theologians rather than historians and were in the main Christians. It is however a subject t upon which it is very difficult to remain objective whatever one’s background as believer, atheist, agnostic or member of another religion.   Ashton’s main argument in this work is that Paul’s personal mystical experiences, especially the events on the Damascus road recorded by Luke in Acts 9, may be of more importance than the somewhat unsystematic theology of his letters. The book seeks to show how important aspects of Paul’s life and ministry should be seen in the light of his religious experience. He quotes Schweitzer who said of Paul’s mysticism that it ‘marks the last stage of the battle fought by the idea of resurrection to establish its place in eschatology’. He examines closely what he sees as shamanistic elements of Paul, both in his teaching and his letters and mentions how, from the1880’s onwards there have been those who have sought to prove that Paul was greatly influenced by pagan mystery religions which abounded at the time giving as an example his theology of baptism which it could be argued was very similar to that of the re-enactions of the death and rebirth of various gods such as Attis,   a Phrygian god of vegetation and Adonis,   a Greek deity. These ideas would be familiar to Paul, bought up as he was in a world where Greek influence was important, but his main influence   must have been his Jewish background, although Ashton believes that Paul’s religion was rather more than a mere modification of Judaism. On page 135 Ashton describes baptism as practised in the churches that Paul founded as being no more than a token when compared to the rites of passage practised in other religions of the time. Some would disagree with this minimalisation of what they see as an important part of Christian ritual, and in many churches it is only undertaken after a period of instruction which may be quite prolonged. Ashton says that the starting point for Paul’s thinking on the subject comes not from his knowledge of baptismal practices in Judaism, but was a result of his dramatic death life experience on the Damascus road and the subsequent resurrection to a new life in Damascus.   In chapter 7 he explains the part that the spirit world played in ancient times – anything that could not be explained was deemed to be the work of spirits and gods – for good or ill. Mention is made of how demons were believed to be behind and to explain all sorts of happenings that deviated from the norm such as storms, plagues, riots, unhappy love affairs and much more. Paul does not mention demons much, though he does refer to what he sees as his one great adversary – Satan. Ashton explains the role of the spirit both in Paul’s life and in that of his converts. He also examines the role of Christ himself in a passage which he realises may cause offence as it is entitled ‘Jesus the Shaman’.   In order to mitigate any offence he states that shamanism was not the most important aspect of Jesus’ ministry, but says that Jesus’ life as a wandering healer fits in with shamanistic practices even more than does the work of Paul. He claims that Jesus was not unique in this quoting several sources. There is detailed reference to the various words used to describe Jesus’ actions in ‘muzzling’ evil spirits. This, Ashton says, merely places Christ alongside other exorcists of the time. The difference was how he did it according to Mark chapter 3 v 11 and 12 where we are told that â€Å" Whenever the evil spirits saw him they fell down before him and cried out ‘You are the Son of God’.† On page 69, still discussing the shamanism of Christ, Ashton reminds us that in all three synoptic gospels the two incidents of the baptism of Christ and the temptation in the wilderness are recorded in that order and   he admits that for the purposes of his argument it would be better if they had been   recorded in the reverse order which would have fitted in better with the usual shamanistic experience of struggle followed by call or empowerment but a t least the two are associated.   Although in chapter 2, entitled ‘Paul the Enigma’ the question is asked ‘Was Paul a shaman?’ the answer is quickly given ‘Not really’. A shaman is a member of a tribal society who acts as a medium between the natural world and the spiritual one. A shaman is limited in his influence and also his periods of spirit filled ecstasy are limited and transitory. He uses magic to control events in the natural world, whether for good as in healing, or for bad as in curses. Paul did use his powers to control nature as when on the isle of Malta ( Acts 27) to cure many people, but it was available widely and not used in a negative way. Yet the author insists that some of Paul’s practices were shamanistic in nature and quotes the example of a picture of Paul struck blind from ‘Trà ¨s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry.’ Under the picture are the words ‘The inspired priest or shaman is usually called to his vocation   by a traumatic experience.’ Ashton sees the role of the shaman in two parts – the shaman’s personal experience and his ability to persuade other people of his exceptional gifts. This latter aspect is described as the social aspect. Ashton quotes at length from a Japanese work on the subject which states that a shaman is one who receives a gift from the spirit world. Usually this is from one spirit who becomes a companion or guide and after receiving the gift the shaman may experience a period of hysteria afterwards which results in illness. The process involves a complete change of character, perhaps like that described at the time of Paul’s meeting with the risen Christ. Whatever happened to Paul he himself saw it as a vision and a call – see Galatians 1. On page 243 Ashton mentions the finding of the documents now known as the Dead Sea Scrolls in 1947. One of these ‘Songs of the Sabbath Sacrifice’ was finally published only in 1985. He states that as early as 1971 John Bowker had put forward the proposition that Paul’s vision took place while he was engaged in a period of merkabah mysticism as mentioned in the scroll. He then mentions the doctoral thesis published in 1980 by Seyoon Kim ‘The Origin’s of Paul’s Gospel† which seems able to prove a link between Ezekiel 1, a key passage in the study of such mystic practises, and the verse in the Second letter to the Corinthians   ( 4 v 6) where it says ‘For God who said â€Å"Let light shine out of darkness† made his light shine in our hearts’. Ashton further argues that Paul’s ability to discuss spiritual matters is important in understanding the continuing popularity of his writings. The aim is to define Paul – a convert, a prophet, a mystic, an apostle, a charismatic, a shaman. Whichever definition one prefers Ashton argues that Paul acted as he did because of the set of circumstances in which he found himself. In chapter 4, entitled ‘Paul the Mystic’ Ashton is concerned with Paul’s mystical experiences, especially the rapture which he described in 2 Corinthian 12 as being carried up to the third heaven. The trances in which visions like these occur were well known in Judaism, but as Ashton points out, are a feature of shamanistic activities throughout the world. Despite this Ashton admits on his final page that any observable resemblances between Paul’s life and features of shamanism are coincidence only. Another aspect of the book is the examination of why, according to Ashton, Paul generally seemed to prefer to speak to Gentile audiences rather than the Jews of whom he was one, and, alongside this, there is an examination of Paul’s attitude to traditional Judaism, which it is possible he never officially renounced. See 2nd Corinthians 11 v 22 ‘Are they Hebrew? So am I’   Ã‚  Ashton seems fascinated with the idea of the symbiosis of Judaism and its younger offspring Christianity as when Paul spent three weeks at Thessalonica explaining how Jesus had to die and rise again, using the Jewish scriptures to do so.( Acts 17 v 1-4). Christians today read Paul’s words after 2000 years of the church developing his ideas into what we call Christian theology, something that was not in place before Paul – says Ashton, but he pays little attention to the theology of Christ found in the gospels. Ashton believed that Paul was a religious thinker in the sense that his thoughts were reflection upon his experiences rather than a pure theologian. In his introduction Ashton discusses various previous ways of looking at Paul and his influence i.e. a studies of his conversion and subsequent work in founding and building Christian communities; those who aim to present a systematic account of his thinking; Paul’s psychology and finally those who seek to put his work in a historical or/and sociological perspective. He concludes that none of these approaches quite fits his purpose, without stating precisely what his purpose is at this point. Chapter 2 describes Paul as an enigma – a puzzle. He questions how much shamanistic practices, already present in Judaism back until the time of the Judges, affected Paul. Ashton quotes passages from I Samuel describing prophets and seers, a translation which Ashton believes to be wrong. and quotes much later passages, in Isaiah and Jeremiah where the practices of mediums and so on were condemned e.g. Isaiah 8 v 19. Like many others of Christ’s followers Paul was an exorcist and a prophet. On page 36 Ashton concludes that there is no evidence that Paul picked up shamanistic practices from another   shaman, unless, as some such as Andrew Wilson believe, he did meet Christ in life and copied his practices. Among the many works quoted is Karl Barth’s commentary on Romans in which Ashton says that Barth deplores any attempt to describe Paul as a religious figure. Also mentioned is   J. Louis Martyn who aims in his commentary to dispel the idea that Paul was in any way anti-Jewish. Barth in particular splits religion absolutely from theology, but although it is possible to study the subject in a totally objective way, just as one might study chemistry, I do not feel that this is true of Paul. His theology sprang very definitely from his personal experience of the Saviour and the Holy Spirit working within him. Ashton also tries to explain the huge success of Paul’s message in bringing about change in the lives of both individual’s and communities. On page 234, in a chapter entitled ‘Paul the Possessed’ Ashton quotes Paul’s words in his letter to the Galatian church , Galatians 4   v14, where he describes how, despite his physical difficulties, he was welcomed ‘as if I were an angel of God’ i.e. as a messenger directly from God.   George Bertram is quoted as saying that this passage is the key to Paul’s own understanding of his role.    ‘He is entitled   to speak in this way’ says Bertram , ‘because Christ is manifested in him, in his body, in his missionary work’. On page 236 Evans-Pritchard’s statement about how, when a man is seized by a spirit, the event may be a temporary one, is quoted. Evans-Pritchard went on to say that if it is a permanent possession, the person becomes a prophet capable of healing, of exorcism and having foresight into events. The presence of the Holy Spirit was the ruling factor in Paul’s life. Consider for instance his words in Romans 8 v 14 -16:-‘Those who are led by the Spirit of God are the sons of God ‘ and ‘the Spirit itself testifies with our spirit that we are God’s children’. Yet this is the same Paul who described himself in 1st Timothy as ‘the worst of sinners.’ (I Tim. 1 v 16). How great the change must have been. If we take Luke’s word in Acts 28 where he describes how Paul, right up until what may have been the end of his life, continued to teach and preach and quoted Isaiah who spoke about how the Holy Spirit spoke the truth, then in Paul’s case the change that occurred on the Damascus road was very permanent and influenced all that he both did and said.   Professor Ashton claims on page 162, in a chapter concerned with the apostleship of Paul, that Luke, as biographer, has no interest in the question that intrigues him. The story Luke is telling is that of how Christ, rejected by the Jews, was proclaimed to the Gentiles. Luke was eager to show how Paul used scripture to make his point. Ashton describes Paul, on page 162, as the chief witness and as such he was not reluctant to use spiritual power to do so.( I Corinthians 2 v 5) Just as Luke uses the phrase ‘in the power of the spirit’ to describe how Jesus returned to Galilee, Paul uses the same phrase to describe his own activity. Luke also tells us that Christ gave the apostles power and how Paul manifested similar power. Ashton mentions the passage in 2nd Corinthians 12 v 12 that he feels is the key to Paul’s ability to gain a hearing and also to convince –‘The things that mark an apostle – signs, wonders and miracles – were done among you with great perseverance.’ The people were convinced because his words had authority behind them – an authority he claimed came from the Messiah himself. Ashton mentions the work of Ramsey MacMullen in describing how religious fairs would convince people to join pagan religions. Their senses would be assaulted by all kinds of wonders. Ashton claims that Paul’s career begun in a similar way as a wonder worker and, although Luke tells us that Paul preached the word it seems likely that it was his spiritual acts that were the first attraction and only later did promises of salvation and forgiveness take root. Ashton concludes his unusual book by saying that he is a historian, and having looked at Paul using history and comparative anthropology as an alternative to the work of theologians, he hopes that if the book is noticed at all it will show that the way of the theologian is not the only way to come to an understanding of Paul the Apostle. This is not an easy book to either read or review. Not because it is difficult to follow the arguments, whether or not one agrees with them, but because it is so easy to get sidetracked along paths that one has not perhaps explored before such as the influence of Jewish mysticism on the early church or what other commentators say about a passage  Ã‚   such as that in Ezekiel chapter 1. Bu t if it rouses interest in this subject it has done its job even if the author is rather divident to whether or not or not he has proved his point.       Bibliography and Works Cited Ashton, John, Approaches to the Fourth Gospel ( Oxford University Press, Oxford 1994) Ashton, John, The Religion of Paul the Apostle ( Yale University Press, New Haven and London, 2000) Ashton, John, Understanding the Fourth Gospel (Clarendon Paperbacks, Oxford, 1994) Bertram,G. ,Paulus Christophoys:Ein anthropologisches Problem des Neuen Testaments in Stromata: Festgabe des akademischen Verreins zu Giessen im Schmalkaldener Kartell anlà ¤ÃƒÅ¸lich seines 50. Stiftungstages ( Leipzig 1930) Bible, New International Version ( Hodder and Stoughton, London 1998) Bowker,J. ‘Merkabah’ Visions and Visions of Paul, ( JSS 16 1971) Evans-Pritchard, E.E. Nuer Religion,( Oxford 1956). Gunkel, H. Die Wirkungen des heiligen Geistes nach der populà ¤ren Anschuung der apostolischen Zeit und der Lehre des apostels Paulus ( Gà ¶ttingen 1888) Kim,S., The Origin of Paul’s Gospel, ( Berlin 1984). Ramsey,W.M., The Bearing of Recent discoveries on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament,( London 1915) Schweitzer,A.   Geschichte der paulinnischen Forschung von der Reformation bis auf die Gergenwart.( Tà ¼bingen 191) Trà ¨s Riches Heures du Duc de Berry http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/rh/1.html ( accessed 12th January 2008). Weinel,H., Die Wirkungen des Geistes und der Geister im nachapostolischen Zeitaler bis zum Irenà ¤us ( Friburg i.B/Liepzig/Tà ¼bingen 1899) Wilson,A.N. Paul  :the Mind of the Apostle, ( London 1997).

Scales in Music

Scales in Music â€Å"Life is like a piano, the white keys represent happiness and the black show sadness. But as you go through lifes journey, remember that the black keys also create music† â€Å"Unknown† Music was and will always be universal, personal, and close to millions of hearts anywhere in the world. Music would not have been created if it wasnt accompanied by musical instruments and the uniqueness of all the different scales that were and are used today in music. â€Å"A musical scale is a series of notes differing in pitch to a specific scheme.† Music is a universal language that people understand and is never outdated. Scales were originally formed in the early Medieval and Renaissance periods which date back to 500 AD. Everything was created in the early western classical music periods even though only primarily one scale was typically used during that time frame up until the Modern period. Two of the most common scales are called Major and Minor. Back in the Medieval and Renaissance periods, Major and Minor scales were used and coming from one specific term called â€Å"Church modes† or Gregorian modes. There are eight different types of Church modes: â€Å"The Lydian, Hypoaeolin, Hypolydian, Dorian, Phrygian, Mixolydian, Hypodorian and Aeolian.† One example of a Church mode would be a Gregorian scale. In natural major scales, typically the first solfege note begins and ends with Do. A typical Gregorian scale starts on Mi. The Gregorian model/scale is used for the piece â€Å"Song of Prayer†. This is an example of the Gregorian scale because the key starts on something else besides Do. The Gregorian scale itself starts and ends on a half step. Typically for most scales, there is a whole step between the first and second note. Every scale has their own sequence of half steps, whole steps and even thirds as well. â€Å"The Pentatonic scale dates back to Greece, and the word Pentatonic derives from Greek and means pente, meaning five.† â€Å"The Tonic meaning tone.† When you put both names together you get pentatonic and its referred to as a five-note scale. Its also quite similar to a Pentascale which is also a five note scale. The Pentatonic scale was also believed to be used in the past in ancient times. For example, Claude Debussy, who was very well known as an influential composer in the Romantic Period, used Pentatonic Scales in his own original pieces. One of his works, â€Å"The Sonata for Cello and Piano† used a Pentatonic scale in the key of D minor which was composed in 1915. When Major scales get transposed, they change into its relative Minor scale. For Minor Scales, there are 3 different types of scales: A Natural Minor, A Harmonic scale and a Melodic scale. All three scales are very different but still are very similar to each other. A Natural minor Scale is a sequence of whole and half steps where all the keys are all pure natural keys that are not sharped or flattened. A Harmonic minor scale is written just like a Natural scale but written with one added accidental. Accidentals are symbols which are: sharps, flats and naturals that ended on the musical staff by accident. A melodic minor Scale is just like a Harmonic minor scale except it has two added accidentals on the 6th and 7th note of the scale. The Minor scales are very commonly used in music and the easiest scale to incorporate is the Natural minor. The natural minor scale is also known Aeolian scale and its the complete opposite of a natural major scale. The qualities of the chords, the sound of the keys, and the whole and half pattern of notes are completely different. The sound of the natural minor scales are less high pitched than natural major scales. The tones of a natural minor scales are more darker and have a gloomier sound when you play the scale. For example, Green Days song â€Å"Holiday† is played in F minor and if you listen to the song you would automatically hear that it has a gloomy sound to the composition. When it comes to playing different scales and switching up the keys to make songs sound more unique, thats when you have your Harmonic minor scale. â€Å"The Harmonic minor scale derives its name from the harmonic function created by its 7th degree.† The Harmonic minor scale has a really pretty and soothing sound to it. Whenever I play the E harmonic minor scale, I think the scale sounds heavenly. Also, â€Å"The raised 7th gives this distinctly minor sounding scale a sense of authority.† Another example of a Harmonic minor scale would be â€Å"Easy Please Me† by Katy B, its solely based on the harmonic key in B flat minor. It doesnt really sound heavenly but It definitely has more out-there sound and is completely unique. The last type of a minor scale is the most complicated one out of all of them. The Melodic minor scale is quoted as the most commonly used minor scale. The Melodic scale is also quoted as the most complicated minor scale in Music Theory. The Scale has a nickname called â€Å"The Jazz Scale.† The Melodic minor scale has a raised 6th and 7th note in the scale to satisfy the harmonic part of the scale. One reason why the Melodic scale is difficult is because it creates conflict with the other scales. Another reason why the scale complicates things is because its in many different keys all at one. One example of the scale would be â€Å"Chelsea Bridge† by Billy Srayhorn because of its chords that sound dark and creepy. The first and most common scale that would come to peoples minds would be the major scale. The Major scale is one of the four most commonly used scales in music today. Major is always mentioned in any type of scale;Major Pentascales, Major Natural Scales, Major Triads etc. The Major scale is referred to as the joyful and happy tune when you play any major scale. For Example, in Taylor Swifts song â€Å"Ours†, Its a crush worthy song that makes a person smile about the guy that their missing. The song is played in C major. Another Example of a Major key is Taylor Swifts Song â€Å"Safe and Sound† featuring the Civil Wars. Despite its sound, its still written in major key even though its actually more on the gloomier and deeper side rather than the piece sounding cheerful. The song was written in G major. Imagine writing a song for key thats easy to read and then writing a song for a key thats so uncommon you have never heard of it. â€Å"The Octatonic Scale is a eight note scale that consists of starting off a scale with half steps rather than whole steps.† The Octatonic Scale is the one scale that has a fully Diminished sound to it and thats why its also called â€Å"The Diminished Scale†. One of the three modes of a Octatonic scale is a OCT (0,1) which starts off a half step to first and second note of the scale. The Second mode of the scale is an OCT (1,2) which is similar to the first mode because it starts off with a half to the first and second note as well. The last mode is called (Oct 0,2) which its pattern starts off with a whole step rather than half. In conclusion, Music has always been there for me and anyone else who loves creating and listening to music. Imagine if the world had no music, all of us would have a heart attack. Its really fascinating and wild how the generations have passed down music. Its interesting how much there is to learn in music despite how challenging it is. In the end, Its worth the stress to learn but to remember to never forget what you love the most: Music.   Works Cited Musicopoulos. Melodic Minor Scale. Web. 17 Dec. 2014. . The Freakiness of Melodic Minor. The Ethan Hein Blog. 31 Jan. 2011. Web. 17 Dec. 2014. . OctaveBox. OctaveBox. Web. 17 Dec. 2014. . Feist, Jonathan. Music Education Information and Articles. Web. 17 Dec. 2014.  . The Eight Gregorian Modes. Modes. Web. 17 Dec. 2014.  . Teorà ­a. Music Theory Web. Web. 17 Dec. 2014. . Web. 17 Dec. 2014. . Music Discipline Modes of the Major Scale. Modes of the Major Scale. Web. 17 Dec. 2014.  . The Community of Jesus | Christian Community | Benedictine Monastery. The Community of Jesus. Web. 17 Dec. 2014. .

Understanding Of Ancient Pompeian And Herculaneum Civilisations History Essay

Understanding Of Ancient Pompeian And Herculaneum Civilisations History Essay Pompeii and Herculaneum became Roman towns more than a century before the eruption and many aspects of Roman society were reflected through their social structure.  [1]  Society in Pompeii and Herculaneum was a mix of different social classes that was well-ordered and divided into three the upper class, middle class and lower class.  [2]  Buildings, frescoes, statues, graffiti and inscriptions revealed some names and faces of men and women from all levels of society. This essay will be discussing an upper class woman, Julia Felix an upper class man Marcus Nonius Balbus and prostitution. According to the Romans the social status of men and women was influenced by their wealth, their family background or their official positions.  [3]   Julia Felix was a very wealthy Roman woman. She inherited her money from her family and owned a villa that took up an entire block in Pompeii.  [4]   A house is a strong reflection of social status.  [5]  The features and size of the house of Julia Felix suggest that it belonged to a wealthy person. It was well furnished, decorated with paintings depicting scenes from the Forum and frescoes depicting scenes from everyday life and items enjoyed by the household.  [6]   Excavations revealed that after the 62AD earthquake the house was ruined. Julia then decided to rent out part of her house to help people from the shortage of accommodation. The house then consisted of apartments, shops, toilets, gardens, and bars. She also opened her private bath to the public. This supports that the household was wealthy, as in ancient Pompeian times not all houses featured baths as they were costly. An inscription has been found in the House that said: To let, in the estate of Julia, daughter of Spurius: elegant baths for respectable people, shops with upper rooms and apartmentsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ the lease will expire at the end of the five years.  [7]  This suggests that women could own property without the interference of any male meaning they were independent and can take charge of constructing buildings with their own money.  [8]  This inscription also reveals that Julia was involved in business activities. She was a main public figure that made her influential in Pompeii. However historians may never know the true extent of the independence of women.  [9]   When excavations took place many sections were uncovered they include, the triclinium, garden, and private bath. The triclinium in the house of Julia Felix was well decorated with frescoes depicting everyday life scenes. It consisted of marble beds with a fountain with a waterfall and three klinai, on which diners would sit to take their meals. Each couch had room for three diners who could lie down on cushions while they were served by slaves.  [10]   The private baths were complex. They consisted of a dressing room with cold tub, a warm and hot bath, a cloak room, an open pool as well as a waiting room where bathers could have a chat and purchase snacks from the tavern.  [11]  At first the bath was strictly used by the households but later it was used by the public if they paid.  [12]   The garden of the house was ample of space and water. It was divided into two parts, one part was a great viridarium decorated with statues, fountains, and marble columns whereas the other part was planted with trees and there was a fruit orchard divided by paths for walking.  [13]  And a small shrine to the Egyptian goddess, Isis was found in the garden.  [14]   Another archaeological source revealing information about the upper class is the marble statue of Marcus Nonius Balbus. Marcus was born in Nuceria, but lived in Herculaneum; he was the proconsul of Crete and Cyrene, a supporter of Octavian and the tribune of the lower class in 32BC.  [15]  He is also known as a supporter of the Vespasian in the Civil War in AD68-69.  [16]   Marcus was also an important political figure; as he was a good friend of Julius Caesar and helped in having the First Triumvirate, between Caesar, Crassus and Magnusin in 60 BC.  [17]   Inscriptions reveal that Marcus was a duumviri; he was elected ten times which indicates that he was active in the community.  [18]   The altar and statue were located near the suburban baths in Herculaneum, but unfortunately the statue was found in pieces, as the head was several meters away from the body. It is believed that the altar and statue were built in the early Augustan period, by the local senate of Herculaneum dedicated to Marcus.  [19]   Inscriptions found state: To Marcus Nonius Balbus, son of Marcus, praetor and proconsul, from the Herculaneans and Marcus Nonius Balbus, son of Marcus, proconsul, [built] the basilica, gates [and] wall with his own money.  [20]   These reveal that Marcus was named the patron of Herculaneum as the 62AD earthquake Herculaneum was ruined therefore; he donated money to the reconstruction and renewal of the city. A basilica, public baths were built along with walls surrounding Herculaneum.  [21]  Therefore, building inscriptions reveal that upper class men owned sufficient amount of money to improve qualities of the city and honour the person who built them. The altar and statue imply that upper class men were honoured and respected and had influential powers. When he passed away he was greatly honoured and this is shown through an inscription carved on the altar where his body was burnt and his ashes were collected.  [22]   Another aspect of social status in Pompeii and Herculaneum was prostitution. Prostitution was common in Pompeii. It was not illegal, as it was a normal business just like other businesses but prostitutes were considered low.  [23]  It is difficult to determine the status of the prostitutes but it was believed that they were slaves, freedwomen and foreigners many from Egypt and Syria.  [24]  Upper class women such as wives, and daughters were forbidden to practice prostitution. Prostitution was a normal part of the sexual life of any Roman man.  [25]  Many men visited brothels as well traders from other towns.  [26]  Twenty five brothels were identified by the Professor Thomas McGinn in Pompeii, whereas none were identified in Herculaneum; however it is assumed prostitution was also practiced there.  [27]   Professor Andrew Wallace-Hadrill excavating at Pompeii and Herculaneum used a criteria to identify the brothels: brothels were situated on a corner isolated from the main areas of social activity consisted of at least five rooms upstairs featuring stone beds large amount of graffiti and wall paintings Lupanar was one of the main brothels in Pompeii; it was situated two blocks east from the forum.  [28]  It was a two storey building consisting of ten stone beds with mattresses, each bed in a separate room, and a toilet under the stairs. The walls revealed the different sexual activities offered, the prostitutes names and the prices. The average price was six hundred sesterces.  [29]   Graffiti revealed the customers opinions on Lupanar and the prostitutes. One hundred and twenty graffiti were found. A graffiti states: Here I had sex with a very beautiful girl admired by many.  [30]   Prostitutes operated in different places and were differently paid depending on their social status. The poor prostitutes such as slaves did their business in archways while high class courtesans operated in better surroundings.  [31]   Prostitution was profitable, prostitutes were to register with the aediles and tax was introduced during the emperor Gaius period.  [32]   To conclude, the social status of men and women was influenced by their wealth, their family background or their official positions.  [33]  The survival of ancient buildings such as House of Julia Felix and Lupanar, and statue of Marcus Balbus, graffiti, frescoes and inscriptions greatly contributed to the understanding of the ancient society of Pompeii and Herculaneum, by revealing much information that gave historians and archeologists an insight of that ancient society.

School to Work after the School to Work Opportunities Act :: School Work Opportunities Act Essays

School to Work after the School to Work Opportunities Act In July 1994, Congress passed the School to Work Opportunities Act (STWOA), allocating funds to establish statewide partnerships designed to prepare students with knowledge and skills required for employment in the workplace. Recent reports show that STW has varied considerably across these partnerships, resulting in differing views on the viability of its programs. Now that federal funding from STWOA has ended, what is the aftermath? What are the chances for sustaining STW now that funding has ceased? To what extent have STW efforts been institutionalized and supported by local business? How do the perceptions and commitment of teachers, educators, students and parents influence the self-sustaining future of school to work (STW)? This Myths and Realities looks at the issues as they apply to life after STWOA. State Policies and Funding Strategies Ensure that STW Programs Are Sustained There is no doubt that state policy to advance activities started under the federal grant will be a major factor in the sustainability of STW (Miller and Fleegler 2000). Already, some states have taken the initiative for bringing higher standards to education by offering incentives for business to participate in STW programs. In Colorado, for example, the General Assembly passed a law in 1997 giving businesses a 10 percent tax credit for participating in its School-to-Career program (Eslinger 1998). In Connecticut, efforts to sustain STW have involved the hiring of an STW coordinator whose main responsibility is to focus on community outreach (Cutshall 2001c). Commitment is the key where state policy is involved. Alan Hershey, a senior fellow with Mathematica Policy Research Inc. in Princeton, New Jersey, has evaluated the progress of STW for the U.S. Department of Education. He predicted that unless states are actively committed to STW, the partnerships established through the STWOA would dissolve once federal funding ceases. States such as Michigan and Wisconsin will likely fund or find ways to use employment and training and technical education dollars to fund STW activities because they are committed to STW, as evidenced by their record (Kiser 1999). In Wisconsin, "85% of the school districts receive STW funds and 93% of high schools are involved in STW" (Hettinger 1998, p. 23). When states are as heavily committed to the tenets of STW as these two states, they are likely to find other funding sources to continue their STW programs (Hettinger 1998). Not all states, however, have been able to muster enthusiasm for STW.

IQ Tests :: Triarchic Theory, Intelligence, Success

To what extent do you agree that IQ tests are a meaningful measure of intelligence? Introduction: There is much debate about IQ tests. There are many definitions of intelligence and no one agreed on a specific definition. Triarchic theory one of definitions which is describe intelligence categories in three aspects involved: analytical, creative and practical (Sternbery, 1958). Some researches emphasize that IQ tests are meaningless and measures intelligence as Cohen (1991) believes that IQ scores can predict if people success in school and work or not. However, other researches argue that IQ tests is meaningless and it not possible to determined intelligence. For example, Rawat (2001) clime that IQ scores are affected by many factors. As a result, people could not depended on IQ results. This essay will argue that taking IQ tests as a measures of intelligence is insignificant. Although, it also might present some benefits. In order to demonstrate this the essay first will discuss IQ scores are able to change and it is not a good criterion to depend on. Second, it will argue that there are many factors affected on intelligence such as heredity and socio-economic factors. Moreover, it will show the differences between success and intelligence. Furthermore, it will focus on using IQ tests to discriminate between people. 1. High IQ scores do not prove intelligence: One of the reasons of IQ tests are meaningless is the obtaining high scores in the IQ test is not enough of measuring intelligence. According to Rawat (2001) high scores in the IQ test do not mean someone is intelligent. Furthermore, Chon (1991) point out people can change IQ scores when they take the test more than once, also they could know the main idea of the test, how the test works, what procedures, how they can answer the questions. As a result, they can change their scores to a high level by preparation. Indeed, it could not be a good criterion of measure of intelligence because the result is not fixed and always changes. Goleman (1998) and Salovey and Mayer (1990) mention that emotional intelligence is the important ability to express and understand emotional knowledge. As a result, IQ scores cannot be accounted by IQ test because it could not support and covered the emotional intelligence's side. Therefore, it seems clear that attaining high scores in the IQ tests are not r eliable results and cannot evaluate intelligence significantly. 2. Different factors can affect intelligence:

Kfc’s Explosive Growth in China Essay

Kentucky fried Chicken (KFC) has achieved another milestone in delivery. The explosive growth in Asian region most particularly in their current trends in China that KFC fried chicken, burger and fries is gaining its way to superstardom. In China, Yum! Brands is opening a KFC store every day. But this is not the KFC you know in America. A recent case study written by professor David Bell and Agribusiness Program director Mary Shelman reveals how the chicken giant adapted its famous fast-food formula for the local market. Key concepts include: – In China, KFC’s strategy was to be part of the local community, not be seen as a foreign presence. (Su, 2011) – China division chairman and CEO Sam Su combined the best ideas from the US fast-food model and adapted them to serve the needs of the Chinese consumer. – Only a small number of menu items would be familiar to Western visitors—the Chinese KFC offerings include fried dough sticks, egg tarts, and foods tailored to the tastes of specific regions within the country. – To counter concerns about fast food and obesity, Su offered a healthier menu and supports exercise and youth events. The traditional strategy is the involvement of their culture has largely influence the family ties to consider their food. According to Bell (2011) one key issue the case examines is â€Å"how to implement the rollout of a fast-food chain involving so many stores across such a vast—and regionally different—country.† (Stravish, 2011) When their customers walked into their restaurant they see Chinese customer service. Chinese food and Chinese employees welcome customers and that’s why it becomes easy for them to initiate interaction. Su’s strategy was that KFC â€Å"would not be seen as a foreign presence but as part of the local community â€Å"There is no room for ego,† (Su, 2011) â€Å"China doesn’t have the same culture of individualism that is present in the United States.† (Su, 2011) Along with being smart, driven and great entrepreneur, Su hired the right people. For Su, this meant employees who read and spoke the language , who understood the restaurant business and Chinese consumer, and also experience on doing business in the Western way. Trained labor is a very valuable asset even in a land of 1.3 billion-plus people. (Stravish, 2011) The large conflicting crowd should have one idea about the taste and preference as much as possible they have outperformed the number one fast food chain, which is McDonald. Sam Su also consider diversification of food items so that they can cater to a wider customer range especially those  people who are healthy conscious about their body, they offer fat free food and vegetables menu to their customers that attract and re-invent even more heterogeneous customer demand. The wide variety of choices can help the customers to make healthy options and balance diet, their strategy also involve presenting their choices. They have also practice sponsorship and promotion about healthy living in 2010 that has become another successful endeavor on their part that various exercises has been promoted inside the stores and customers are free to join, they have gathered at least 260,000 customer participants in 438 key cities. Their promotion has been very successful that makes their store even more popular. (Starvish, 2011) KFC and China has become a Yum Republic. It is certain that globalization not only helps KFC profits, but it’s international, which benefits China and the consumers. Additionally some of their popular food sisters company includes Taco Bell, Pizza Hut, Long John Silver and A&W All American Food. I believe globalization happens to be great for the country and the overall market economy because it promotes prosperity to participating countries. All that we need to do is educate people on multiculturalism and diversity within the work place, as well as the sensitivity of culture within participating countries. Opportunity costs, trade terms, balance trades, comparative advantages, changes in consumption and production, and how much cheaper it is to purchase than to produce are some benefits to globalization. The greater interdependence that globalization is causing means an increasingly freer flow of goods, services, money, people, and idea across national borders. (Wild&Wild, 6th ed, pg 6) Su has done a great job on hiring employees that know the language, understand the business and Chinese customers, and also having experience on doing business the Western way. Because of technological changes, continuous development and research, the market economy remains to be dynamic. Reference: Starvish. (2011). KFC’s Explosive Growth in China. HBS Cases. Retrieved from http://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/6704.html Wild&Wild. International business: the challenges of globalization/ John J. Wild, Kenneth L. Wild- 6th ed.

Marketing Mix Essay

1.1 Background to the Report Strategic management refers to analysing the important initiatives which are taken by the top management of the company on behalf of the owners. It successfully keeps a track of day- to- day activities which are going into an organization to organise the resources and plan a strategy which the organization should follow in order to get benefit in the business. It provides a direction to the organization and is closely related to the field of organizational structure. (Hambrick, 2007) In this report, strategic management of Singapore Airlines is critically evaluated on the basis of several strategies used by them. This not only helped the company in achieving the results but also enabled SIA to expand itself in the global market as well as establish a new base in the new expanding countries. 1.2 Aims of the research are – To develop a good understanding about what involves in Strategic management. To develop knowledge about constituents of strategic management process. Critical assessment of strategies of a selected organization. To throw some light on the internal and external environment of selected organization. Gap analysis for Singapore Airlines – 2. Analysis of internal framework of Singapore Airlines – Capability to restore competency in order to attain similarity with the change in business environment are termed as dynamic capabilities. This is done by reconfiguring, mixing and adjusting external and internal resources, skills and abilities (Teece et al., 1997). 2.1 Resources – Connecting strategic resources and core strategies is defined as ‘configuration’ by Hamel where core competencies and assets, process and assets are organized and combined in order to maintain strategies (Hamel, 2002). Resources are divided into two categories, tangible and intangible resources of Singapore Airlines. They are further divided into sub categories on the basis of which it can be assessed that core strategies and strategic resources were well connected. 2.2 Capabilities – On the basis of broad variety of competency and technological expertise in newly invented planes, Singapore Airlines effectively fascinated more airlines clients to its fleet management industry, securing its place as major fleet management facility providers of the world. It also persists on expanding its potential by means of strategic joint ventures. For instance, a joint venture agreement is signed by SIA with Panasonic Avionic Corporation in order to prepare a facility for maintenance, repair and operation of communication and in-flight entertainment. Facility will be based in Singapore and components will be generated by Panasonic Avionics (Singapore Airlines, 2011). 2.3 Core Competencies – Core competencies of Singapore Airlines consist of the interpersonal talents of its flight assistants and ability of its top level management in planning strategies for marketing. They endeavour to make flights as relaxing as possible (Singapore Airlines, 2011). 3. Analysis of external framework of Singapore Airlines – PESTEL Analysis FactorsSingapore Airlines PoliticalUnpredictable, SIA reject Air India offer EconomicSIA offer created trouble in Hong Kong SocialSIA Airplane crash in Taiwan TechnologicalQuick technology implementation EnvironmentalLaunch of A380 Air career LegalPassengers safety 4. Five forces of porter – Porter’s five forces model deliver a well-liked external analysis framework for Singapore Airlines. After analysing the internal and external framework of Singapore Airlines, S.W.O.T analysis is performed in order to assess SIA’s capabilities, followed by the critical analysis of corporate and business level strategies. 5. S.W.O.T. Analysis – Strengths – Singapore Airlines has an expanded geographical reach. They operate in a number of reasons like US, West Asia, Europe, Africa, South west Pacific and East Asia. They run flights to 63 cities globally, whereas its division Silk Air is offering flights in 12 countries with 39 cities. Considerable amount of revenue is generated by SIA group with its airline operations around the globe. Equally spread and diversified revenue base guarantees that group is not dependent on single geographic market for most of its profits, by which business risk decreases significantly. Though, SIA is basically a passenger airline, but the group is also offering various specialized services like engineering services, airline operations, cargo operations, etc. which are providing them stability by diversifying business threats. Additionally, SIA group has a policy of maintaining young aircraft fleets, which emit lower carbon emissions and have less burning of fuel per kilometres. This is also strength of SIA group as this factor helps in keeping maintenance costs less, along with reducing performance related security concerns (Heracleous, 2006). Weaknesses – SIA faced extremely competitive market in its initial phases. Many countries restricted air-route access to protect national airlines from other competitions. SIA worked hard to get access rights for many important airports (eg. Heathrow, Manchester) (Reddy, 2004). Various competitive authorities keep on investigating about Singapore airlines and its subsidiaries. For example, South Korea, Canada, Australia, South Africa and European Union investigated about SIA group in order to determine whether the rates, surcharges, and other characteristics of cargo service were determined lawfully or not. In financial year 2012, SIA paid administrative penalty to South African competition commission (2.8millionUSD) as settlement. Legal expenses connected with the inquiry and court case and time spent on this issue left an impact on SIA’s business and operations. Opportunities – Singapore Airlines with its well-built base of operations and proficiency, is well placed to reap advantages from the worldwide boom in tourism industry. This would help SIA Group to produce extra profits. Also, group is focusing on joint ventures and strategic operational alliances to add opportunities for growth and sales. SIA entered into partnerships (jetblue Airways) and code-sharing agreements (Virgin Australia/ Virgin America) in order to increase growth opportunities. For instance, SIA signed code share agreement with Virgin America in December 2012 (SIA, Virgin America reach code-sharing agreement, 2012). SIA will add its ‘SQ’ airline code to flights of virgin which are America-operated serving Washington DC, Las Vegas, Seattle, Chicago, etc Furthermore, SIA group has launched ‘Scoot’ which is a low cost carrier in order to grow its existence in low cost flight market. This step will enable SIA group to attract more groups of customers which will in crease its growth and revenues. Threats – Competition is very high in the airline industry. Reputation, safety records, customers service, flight schedules, fares, code-sharing relations are few parameters of competitions. SIA faces straight competition with other carriers on its route. Cathay Pacific, Japan airlines, United Continental,  AMR are few of its competitors. Extreme competition on the basis of price matching, promotions, discounting, capacity, etc. affects operating margins of SIA. Also, Natural disasters can have affect on SIA’s operations effecting the cash flows and financial state. Moreover, hike in the prices of jet fuel can increase operating costs, which can affect the profitability (Heracleous, 2006). 6. Strategies used by Singapore Airlines – 6.1 Corporate level Strategies – Diversification – Companies tend to grow their full potential in economies which are developing, with the help of strategic diversification. Strategy of diversification is followed by SIA at the corporate level. SIA group has number of primary companies with key companies being SIA Cargo, SIA Engineering Company and Silk AIR. They also have number of associated companies. Its Airlines divisions which consist of 49% ownership of Virgin Atlantic, 32 % of Tiger Airways and entire ownership of local carrier Silk Air cover basic segments of customer in the industry. This was a long-term strategy (Singapore Airlines, 2008). Benefits of using diversification by Singapore Airlines is to enable passing of learning and control quality and side by side reaping cost synergies. Subsidiaries serve as sources of learning; and also as progress arena for skills of management and corporate rather than divisional viewpoint through job rotation. Profit margins are better in related operations (like aircraft maintenance and catering) on comparison with airline business itself as structure of industry in those sectors is more favourable. (Singapore Airlines, 2008). Strategic Alliances – In April 2000, SIA joined Star Alliance as a step of its internationalization strategy. In the three main airline alliances, Star alliance hold its place  with Oneworld and Skyteam. Also, In India and China, SIA Group were investing through planned deals during this time. Deals were done with local services like engineering services, cargo85 divisions, catering and airport services. SIA is also under a code share contract with Malaysian Airlines. These airlines are offering up to 14 flights in a day between Kuala Lumpur and Singapore (Doganis, 2006). For the expansion of the company, strategic alliances are becoming more common tool. SIA used strategic alliances for increasing competitiveness in the global and domestic markets. This helped SIA in developing new business opportunities with the help of new services and products. This resulted in the expansion and growth of company globally. An alliance is a business-to-business relationship (Jeffrey, 2004). 6.2 Business level strategies – Differentiation strategy – Premium services were successfully delivered by Singapore Airlines to those customers who are very demanding and this can be termed as achieving differentiation strategy. This helped Singapore Airlines in identifying that different customers are broadly scattered, with varied needs and sufficient spending power. If an organization is unique in something which is valuable to its customers at the same time, it differentiates itself in the marketplace (Chamberline & Robinson, 1996). If an offer is valuable for the customers, they tend to be less sensitive to characteristics of competing suggestions where cost may not be one among these characteristics. This accomplishment of SIA challenges viewpoint of Porter that cost leadership and differentiation strategies are equally exclusive strategies (Porter, 1985). Differentiation strategy allowed Singapore Airlines to insulate itself partially from rivalry competitors of same industry. Customers of differentiated services were less sensitive to prices and they started preferring SIA over other airlines, that is, SIA succeeded in gaining customer loyalty (Hitt et al., 2007). SIA carefully applied this strategy and played safe by delivering premium services appropriately without over-proliferating them. leadership strategy – Singapore Airlines has considerably greater effectiveness than its peer group, which is a crucial aspect of an effective leadership strategy. They have young fleets which have lower maintenance costs; they are fuel efficient and have effective hedging of fuel. Labor cost of SIA is comparatively low (16.6%) than average of all prime airlines (20.1%) (Singapore Airlines, 2008). Singapore Airlines have youngest fleets in the airline industry, which is worth considering. Their fleets have average age of 75 months, and average age of half of airline industry fleets is 163 months. SIA’s fleets are much efficient. Younger planes are quiet, comfortable and fuel efficient. They have low repair, service and maintenance costs which are all part of its leadership strategy. 7. Recommendations – Keeping in mind the weaknesses discussed above, some recommendations for Singapore Airlines come into light like keeping company information confidential. SIA paid huge fine as various companies successfully investigated about SIA’s internal facts and figures. Also, they need to keep a close eye on its competitors who try to gain lead in the competition on the basis of price matching, promotions, discounting and capacity. 8. Conclusion – A variety of strategies were executed by Singapore Airlines by which the company is successful for a considerable time. By keeping a track on industrial environment and the macro environment, Singapore Airlines can uplift its capabilities to secure future success. However, as there are uncertainties in the environment and market keeps on altering quickly, it is crucial to monitor and carefully consider all the strategies before implementation. Singapore Airline’s potential to become accustomed to change will positively help the company..to..strive..on..with..competitors..in..the..future. 9. References – Chamberline. E, & Robinson, J. (1996). â€Å"Theory of Monopolistic Competition, What is Perfect Competition ? † Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. II, no. 4, 431- 433 Doganis, R. (2006). Outlook, The Airline business ed. 2, Routledge, Abingdon. Hambrick, D. C., (2007). What is strategic management really? Hamel, G. (2002). Leading the Revolution: How to Thrive in Turbulent Times by Making Innovation a Way of Life. New York: Plume Books. Heracleous, L. (2006). Flying high in competitive industry: Cost effective service at SIA. Mc Graw hill. Hitt, M., Hoskisson, R., Ireland, R. (2007) Management of Strategy: Concepts and Cases.7th ed., Thomson South-Western, USA Jeffrey, R., (2004). Strategic alliances: Theory and evidence, Oxford university press, US, 2004. Porter, M.E.(1985). Competitive Advantage. New York: Free Press, 6-22. Reddy, A. (1994). Total quality marketing: the key to regaining market shares. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. SIA, Virgin America reach code-sharing agreement (2012, December 15, Saturday). Business pg30..Retrieved..from http://imcmsimages.mediacorp.sg/CMSFileserver/documents/006/PDF/20121215/1512BZC032.pdf SIA (2012). Virgin America reaches code-sharing agreement, December 15, 2012. Singapore Airlines, (2008). Annual Report, Singapore. Singapore Airlines, (2011). Annual Report, Singapore. Teece, D., Pisano, G., and Shuen, A.(1997). Dynamic capabilities and strategic management, Strategic Management Journal , 18, 509-533. reaches code-sharing agreement (2012, December 15, Saturday)